Environmental Engineering free essay sample

It involvesâ waste water managementâ andâ air pollutionâ control, recycling,â waste removal, radiation assurance, modern cleanliness, natural maintainability, andâ public healthâ issues just as an information ofâ environmental building law. It is a related investigation of ecological science. Fundamental errand of ecological designers is to ensure general wellbeing by securing (from further corruption), safeguarding (the current state of), and improving the earth. Some work of Environmental architects: Conducts unsafe waste managementâ studies to assess the criticalness of such dangers, exhort on treatment and control, and create guidelines to forestall incidents. Structure metropolitan water gracefully andâ industrial wastewater treatmentâ systems. Address ecological issues, for example, the impacts ofâ acid rain,â global warming,â ozone consumption, water contamination and air contamination fromâ automobile exhaustsâ andâ industrial sources. Natural scienceâ is an interdisciplinaryâ academic fieldâ that incorporates physical and organic sciences, (counting yet not constrained to Ecology, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Soil Science, Geology, Atmospheric Science and Geography) to the investigation of the earth, and the arrangement of ecological issues. Natural science gives an incorporated, quantitative, and interdisciplinaryâ approach to the investigation of ecological frameworks. Natural science woke up as a meaningful, dynamic field of logical examination during the 1960s and 1970s driven by the ff. ssues: (a)â â the requirement for a multi-disciplinary way to deal with dissect complex natural issues. (b)â â the appearance of considerable natural laws requiring explicit ecological conventions of examination. (c)â â the developing open consciousness of a requirement for activity in tending to natural issues. Related regions of study: ecological studiesâ consolidates a greater amount of the sociologies for understanding human connections, discernments and arrangements towards the earth. 2. natural building centers around structure and innovation for improving ecological quality. Parts of Environmental Science: Ecologyâ is the investigation of the associations among living beings and their condition. Biologists may explore the connection between a populace of living beings and some physical quality of their condition, for example, convergence of a compound; or they may examine the cooperation between a two populaces of various creatures through some advantageous or serious relationship. For instance, an interdisciplinary examination of a biological framework which is being affected by at least one stressors may incorporate a few related ecological science fields. In an estuarine setting where a proposed mechanical advancement could affect certain species byâ waterâ andâ air pollution,â biologistsâ would depict the verdure and fauna,â chemistsâ would dissect the vehicle of water poisons to the marsh,â physicistsâ would calculateâ air pollutionâ emissions andâ geologistsâ would help with understanding the swamp soils and narrows muds. . Climatic sciencesâ focuses on the Earths air, with an accentuation upon its interrelation to different frameworks. Environmental sciences can incorporate examinations ofâ meteorology,greenhouse gasâ phenomena,â atmospheric scattering modelingâ of airborne contaminants,[3][4]â sound spread marvels related toâ noise contamination, and evenâ light contamination. Taking the case of theâ global warmingâ phenomena, physicists createâ computer modelsâ of environmental course and infra-red radiation transmission, scientists look at the stock of barometrical synthetic substances and their responses, researcher break down the plant and creature commitments toâ carbon dioxideâ fluxes, and authorities such asâ meteorologistsâ andâ oceanographers include extra broadness in understanding the air elements. 3. Ecological chemistryâ is the investigation of compound modifications in nature. Head zones of study includeâ soil contaminationâ andâ water contamination. The subjects of examination remember compound debasement for the earth, multi-stage transport of synthetic substances (for instance, dissipation of aâ solventâ containing lake to yield dissolvable as an air toxin), and concoction impacts upon biota. For instance study, consider the instance of a leakingâ solventâ tank which has entered the environment soil of anâ endangered speciesâ of land and water proficient. As a technique to determine or comprehend the degree ofâ soil contaminationâ and subsurface vehicle of dissolvable, a PC model would be actualized. Scientific experts would then portray the atomic holding of the dissolvable to the particular soil type, and scholars would contemplate the effects upon soilâ arthropods, plants, and at last lake staying creatures that are the food of the jeopardized land and water proficient. 4. Geosciencesâ includeâ environmental geology,â environmental soil science, volcanic marvels and development of the Earths outside. In some characterization frameworks this can likewise includehydrology, includingâ oceanography. For instance investigation of soilsâ erosion, estimations would be made ofâ surface runoffâ by soil researchers. Fluvial geomorphologists would aid examiningâ sediment transportâ in overland stream. Physicists would contribute by surveying the adjustments in light transmission in the getting waters. Researcher would examine resulting effects on amphibian widely varied vegetation from increments in water turbidity. Nature investigation of the connections among creatures and their condition. begins as right on time as 300 BC with the Greek named Theophastus, his enthusiasm with the interrelationship among life form and the living condition, become his as the Father of Botany. Condition alludes to the total of all the outside powers and conditions following up on a creature or network of living being. oekologie was authored by the german zoologist, Ernst Haeckel, originates from the gr eek word oikos, which means home or a spot to live in. characterizes as the relationship of creatures both to the natural just as the inorganic condition,  â â â â â â â â â â in the mid-1900’s two gathering of botanist, one from the Europe and America, become inspired by the investigation of plants networks, the Europeans focused on the piece, structure and conveyance of plant networks, then again the Americans concentrate to the advancement of plant, in the end they become intrigued at the creatures too, and gave a more prominent accentuation on between relationship of creatures and plants. This become the introduction of nature as the conventional field of study. English financial analyst, Thomas Malthus, focused on populace in the mid nineteenth century, his the first o perceived the contention between extending populace and earths capacity to gracefully it. extent of biology, life form (eg. Proto-plasma, cell, tissue, organ, organ framework), populace, network, biological system, and biosphere. Creature: Levels of association of life (inside the life form): Protoplasma †it makes up the living substance of the cell. Cell †fundamental unit of life Tissue-gathering of cell performing explicit capacities Organ-gathering of tissue conveying a specific capacities Organ framework †gathering of organ doing s explicit capacity. Levels of association of life (inside the life form): Population †gathering of living being of a similar kind or animal categories possessing a specific spot at a specific time. Network †a gathering of populaces possessing a given territory. Biological system  fundamental unit of nature, alludes to the cooperation between the living being and condition. It incorporates populace, networks, living space (where the creature lives) and the earth. eg. backwoods, meadow, stream, and so forth ) Biosphere †universe of life. It is the bit of the earth where in life on its any structure existed. Parts of biological system: Biotic †they are the living segments of environment comprising of plants, creatures and microbes. Abiotic †they are the non living part that comprise of base, light, precipitation, supplements, soil, temperature, and so forth. Biotic Components: Green plants  â â  known as the makers. They catch the vitality originating from the sun and along with the CO2 noticeable all around and H2O changes over this into food vitality. They are called autotrophs (self feeding), they make their own food through the procedure of photosynthesis. There are likewise minuscule green plant called phytoplanktons, they give the green shading to the waterways, for example, lake and streams  Animals Known as the purchasers. Get other food sources to different plants and creatures they are called heterotrophs. Three kinds of shoppers: Herbivores †that eat plants just Carnivores †creatures that eat different creatures. Omnivores-eat the two plants and creatures. Microscopic organisms and Fungi They are called decomposers. They eat the dead assemblages of plants and creatures, where they get their vitality and convert it to different supplements once more into the earth. They are mainstream called the janitor of the nature. Abiotic Components: Soilâ the upper layer of the earth’s outside layer influenced by plants and creatures fills in as the territory and pool of supplements for some life form. Humus dim rotting natural substance found in the dirt. Physical trait of soil: Color The shade of the dirts is impact by the component present in the dirt. Soil shading and component presesent: Gray (absences of iron) Brown red (wealthy in iron) Textureâ the surface of the dirt influences the measure of water and supplements the dirt can hold. Surface of the dirt: Sandy (made out of coarse particles) Clay (comprise of fine particles) Silt (made out of medium size particles. ) Loamy (blend of earth, sand and sediment) Moistur

Unit Quiz Critigue free essay sample

What Is the initial phase In cleaning a gun? Clean from the breech end. B: Point the gag a sheltered way. Field strip the gun. D: Use cleaning solvents in a very much ventilated territory. Your Answer: Correct: b Explanation: Follow these essential strides to clean your gun. Point the gag a protected way, and ensure the firearm is emptied. Expel all ammo from the cleaning bench.Each rifle or handgun is intended to be utilized with a particular kind of: a: cartridge shoetrees check gag Every rifle or handgun Is intended for a particular cartridge. The ammo must match the information stamp on the gun. Which kind of gun sight is straightforward, reasonable, and standard on most handguns? Adaptive speck open gap (peep) A sight is a gadget used to fix up the gag with the shooters eye so the individual can hit the objective. Most handguns have an open sight, albeit some specific Angus have a spot or a scope. We will compose a custom exposition test on Unit Quiz Critigue or then again any comparable point explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page The essential parts of cartridges and relieves are comparable. Which fundamental segment is a slug and shot pellets? A: preliminary case shot powder A shot is the object(s) removed from the barrel. A slug is a shot, for the most part containing lead, discharged through a rifle or handgun barrel. A slug is a strong shot, typically of lead, discharged through a shotgun barrel. Shot is a gathering of lead, steel, tungsten combination, or bismuth pellets discharged through a shotgun barrel.What are the two essential styles of gun activities? Single-shot and continuing rehashing and jolt activity siphon and self-loader single-fired and spinning d Firearms can be ordered by their activity type.

I Ended Up Working for a Reality TV Show

I Ended Up Working for a Reality TV Show Ambitious Adventures, a reality TV show following innovative cities around the U.S. and its entrepreneurs, will be premiering next year. I always liked the idea of reality TV capturing real moments with real people. But most reality TV is fake nowadays and so we want to do something different. We want to take over the medium of reality TV and use it to inspire people to pursue their entrepreneurial dreams. Heres the serendipitous slew of events that happened before I found myself a part of this campaign. I was called up on a random night in October by my friend Sathya, asking me to help run this Jalapeño Bacon Mac and Cheese campaign to feed the homeless that he and his friends were doing. I joined and thats how I met David France, one of the other founders of the campaign. At some point after it ended, he emailed me with a new campaign his buddy Brandon T. Adams was working on in Iowa called the Young Entrepreneur Convention. I donated  $20 and didnt think much of it. Fast forward to last month. Some point after Brandons campaign succeeded and his Young Entrepreneur Convention took off, he joined Greg Rollett and Los Silva of Ambitious.com to start Ambitious Adventures. Because Brandon knew David, David got heavily involved with the show. And because David knew me, he suggested that I use my writing skills to help out and write up some profiles of the entrepreneurs that will be featured on the show. And so here I am, having worked on these profiles over the last month, squeezing them in between all of my other commitments. Since I was travelling a lot this summer, I had to find really creative ways and places to write. I wrote the first two posts in Costa Rica where my Internet was charged by the megabyte. I typed up three more on my phones keypad while travelling on the bus between Boston and Philly. One of them I wrote at  a Starbucks, and another on the train to NYC. I designed all the graphics entirely from my phone, using a mix of mobile PowerPoint and screenshotting. It was a journey, but it taught me to be very resourceful. My next goal is to type one up entirely from a Mac at an Apple store. EVERYONE knows the stories of Steve Jobs, Bill Gates, and Mark Zuckerberg. But have you heard the stories of Phillip and Angelo Campos, two brothers from Des Moines that went from not knowing how to cook to starting a wildly successful salsa business? Or David France, whose world-renowned Roxbury Youth Orchestra started a movement thats sweeping the world, changing the lives of inner-city youth by simply giving them someone who believes in them. These stories are a collection of the everyman being an entrepreneur. These are the stories of their weaknesses, strengths, struggles, and successes. But the unique thing they all have isnt their natural talents, nor their smarts or even their skills. Its their ambition.

Peter Fritzche s Book Germans Into Nazis - 1599 Words

Peter Fritzche’s book, Germans into Nazis, contends that, â€Å"Germans became Nazis because they wanted to become Nazis and because the Nazis spoke so well to their interests and inclinations†¦however, voters did not back Hitler mainly because they share his hatred of the Jews†¦but because they departed from established political traditions in that they were identified at once with a distinctly popular form of ethnic nationalism and with the basic social reforms most Germans counted on to ensure national well-being.† (8-9) His argument rests on the notion that the Nazis had a vision for Germany that incorporated Germans into a national community, throwing off the restraints of a tired government, and propelled them towards a future that would†¦show more content†¦He urged the people, â€Å"go into your churches, kneel before God, and implore his help for our brave army.†(25) This moment hinted at a more independent minded approach to tradition al authority. When coupled together, the emotions of the crowds and the ability of groups like the Fatherland Party to find a footing in the political arena, gives reason to believe that the German people were ready to make a change that served their newfound interests. Fritzche explicitly makes this point, â€Å"the patriotism that Germans displayed was of their own making and suited to new conceptions of nation and citizenship which invited rather than discouraged public participation.† (66) At the conclusion of the war, millions of people were at a loss, and the Nazis stepped in to fill a void left by their opposition who had stoked the flames of nationalism but failed to capitalize on its apparent momentum. This included a strong message that laid blame for the German surrender at the feet of those in charge. Also, previous notions of class were turned upside down or, for the Nazis, right side up, making it possible for an illiberal, fascist community to become the norm. Simply put, â€Å"Basic elements of the Nazi message spoke to the political aspirations that burghers had held for more than ten years.† (192) Germans became Nazis by their own choosing, they were not forced to

The Challenges Of Professional s Infectiveness - 923 Words

Schon (1983) states, â€Å"We look to professionals for definitions and solutions of our problems and through them we strive for social progress†(p.4). Professionals and practitioners are individuals that are highly educated in a certain field of study. For example, our government looks to them for expertise for certain public problems. They are an essential part to our society. They work in favor of the public good because they come up with expert solutions to public problems. Professionals have their challenges and have been known in some incidences to negatively impact the society. Professional’s infectiveness is a challenge that professionals face when trying to come up with solutions. Some solutions are just as bad or even worse than intended to be. According to Schon, advocates for peace and the civil rights of minorities joined forces and turned against experts of whom they saw as instruments of an all-powerful establishment. Some public problems should be solve d by moral and political choice (Schon, 1983, p.9-11) All public servants overcome challenges faced in their positions. The public servant role of a Municipal Court Judge faces many challenges during his/her judgeship. In an interview with Judge Sybil Cleveland, she stated that a challenge of judgeship is following the judicial code of ethics (personal communication, November 7, 2015). There is a code of conduct for all United States Judges, which includes federal, state and local judges. According to United States

Differentiate Between Management and Leadership Free Essays

Individual paper: Differentiate between management and leadership. Be specific 1. Describe the roles and responsibilities that organizational managers and leaders play in creating and maintaining a healthy organizational culture. We will write a custom essay sample on Differentiate Between Management and Leadership or any similar topic only for you Order Now 2. ————————————————- Recommend at least two strategies that organizational managers and leaders can ust to create and maintain a healthy organizational culture. Support your concepts w/the concepts discussed in class. Management and leadership both play an important role in the success of a company. However, each role has a different function and in order to be successful in either position, you must have a clear understanding of what each role entails. This paper seeks to provide an understanding of the difference between management and leadership positions. It will expound on the role and responsibilities of each position because often times the two are viewed as having the same function. Managing a company is the process of moving the company forward implementing identified goals and objectives. Managing is the process of planning, organizing and allocating the necessary resources to accomplish these goals and objectives. He/she will be responsible for developing control mechanisms to motivate employees, measure the companies achievements, as well as ensure projects and operations are run efficiently, cost saving, and effective. 3. Leadership is more abstract when considered separately from management. Leadership is guiding a person or group toward the best results. It is having sound understanding to determine and ability to articulate visions and goals. Leadership is in par with management, but takes on precedence for strategic management and long-term success. How to cite Differentiate Between Management and Leadership, Papers

Managing Stress In Projects Using Coaching Leadership Tools

Question: Discuss about the Managing stress in projects using coaching leadership tools. Answer: Article 1 Larsson, J.,Eriksson, P.,Olofsson, T., Simonsson, P.(2015). "Leadership in Civil Engineering: Effects of Project Managers Leadership Styles on Project Performance."J. Manage. Eng., 10.1061/(ASCE)ME.1943-5479.0000367, 04015011. Successful completion of project requires the ability to co-ordinate the activities of several employees participated in the project of an industry. Thus, project manager plays an important role to set the ground rules and cultivate the combined approach, which strongly influence the performance of a project (Larsson et al., 2015). Article 2 Saif Ur Rehman Khan, Long, C. S., Syed Muhammad Javed Iqbal. (2014). Authentic leadership: An emerging issue in project management.Research Journal of Applied Sciences,8(11), 1377-1383. With the advancement in the project management, todays project leaders have to be specific to their field in term of technical and behavioral approach. Authentic leadership would be most appropriate leadership style for project management in an industry (Saif et al., 2014). In this leadership, the project leaders would keep build honest relationship with the follower participated in the project. Article 3 Stagnaro, C., Piotrowski, C. (2014). Shared leadership: A critical component in IT project management.Journal of Technology Research,5, 1. Information technology fields are evolving rapidly and thus it requires innovation and creativity of the employees participated in the IT project. Distributed leadership approach of the leaders are best suited for the project success as it allows the project participants to lead each other and thus helps in creativity of each other (Stagnaro Piotrowski, 2014). Article 4 Mokhtarisani, M., Zarei, M. M., Leman, Z. (2014). Influence of leadership behavior on project management performance in malaysian industries. Paper presented at the, 564673-677. In todays industrial environment, effective leadership approach has become the prime importance to successfully completing the project and thus bringing competitive edge to the industry (Mokhtarisani et al., 2014). Effective leadership style can minimize the cost of the project by completing the project in right time. Article 5 Krog, C. L., Govender, K. (2015). The relationship between servant leadership and employee empowerment, commitment, trust and innovative behaviour: A project management perspective.SA Journal of Human Resource Management,13(1) In todays competitive era, the success of the project not only dependent on the altitudinal characteristic of the leader but also it is dependent on the positional power of the leaders (Krog Govender, 2015). It is related to wisdom, emotional healing and persuasive mapping quality of the leaders to get the work done by the project worker. Article 6 Clarke, N. (2012). Shared leadership in projects: A matter of substance over style.Team Performance Management: An International Journal,18(3/4), 196-209. Most of the industrial and government project are globalized in nature and thus frequently needs changes in the project procedures. Hence, in this case if a project leaders show shared leadership then the employees would be allowed to lead each others works and thus change their working criteria easily for the successes of the project (Clarke, 2012). Article 7 Yang, L., Huang, C., Hsu, T. (2014). Knowledge leadership to improve project and organizational performance.International Journal of Project Management,32(1) Great project leaders always tend to find way to help the project participant in delivering high performance for the success of the project. Recent project leaders show knowledge leadership for their followers through sharing their knowledge throughout the organization (Yang et al., 2014). Article 8 Lundy, V., Morin, P. (2013). Project leadership influences resistance to change: The case of the canadian public service.Project Management Journal,44(4), 45-64. The success of the project sometimes depends on the ability of the project to adopt the changes of the market. In this case, project participant may sometimes resistant to change (Lundy Morin, 2013). The resistance of the project participants can only be overcome through effective engage leadership of the project leaders. Article 9 Nixon, P., Harrington, M., Parker, D. (2012). Leadership performance is significant to project success or failure: A critical analysis.International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management,61(2), 204-216. Having a single leadership approach throughout the whole project is not appropriate for the success of the project. The circumstances of the project may change and the project leaders should change the leadership style to accommodate the change (Nixon et al., 2012). Article 10 Tyssen, A. K., Wald, A., Spieth, P. (2014). The challenge of transactional and transformational leadership in projects.International Journal of Project Management,32(3) The commitment of the project participants is vey essential to make a project successful. Therefore, effective leadership is very vital to engage project participants in the success of the project (Tyssen et al., 2014). Modern leaders generally follow transformational leadership to engage project participants in the project work. Article 11 Zhang, L., Cheng, J. (2015). Effect of knowledge leadership onKnowledge sharing in engineering project design teams: The role ofSocial capital.Project Management Journal,46(5) The success of the project depends on effective knowledge sharing of the leader. Hence, effective knowledge sharing depends on the appropriate knowledge of the leader to promote collaborative and trustworthy working environment and develop shared vision of the project (Zhang Cheng, 2015). Article 12 Berg, M. E., Karlsen, J. T. (2013). Managing stress in projects using coaching leadership tools.Engineering Management Journal,25(4), 52-61. The work of a modern project team leader is very difficult, demanding and challenging, as they have to manage many works together (Berg Karlsen, 2013). When the project is complex in nature and the purpose of the project is unclear, the project leaders should be very interactive with the project participant. Article 13 Kissi, J., Dainty, A., Tuuli, M. (2013). Examining the role of transformational leadership of portfolio managers in project performance.International Journal of Project Management,31(4), 485-497. In order to handle multiple activities of a project effectively, the recent project leaders apply transformational leadership style in the workplace. It increases the motivation of the project participants as they are allowed to make creative idea for the project success (Kissi et al., 2013). Article 14 Senam, M. R., Rashid, K. A., Sarkawi, A. A., Zaini, R. M. (2014). Construction project leadership from the perspective of islam.International Journal of Islamic Thought,6, 46-56. Most of the projects of the industry are globalized in nature. Therefore, the project leaders have to manage diverse group of people involving in his project. In such case, project leaders use ethical leadership, in which the leaders respect value of all people and consider their dignity for motivating them towards the success of the project (Senam et al., 2014). Article 15 Muller, R., Geraldi, J., Turner, J. R., Handelshgskolan vid Ume universitet (USBE), Ume universitet, Samhllsvetenskapliga fakulteten. (2012;2011;). Relationships between leadership and success in different types of project complexities.IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management,59(1), 77-90. Successful completion of a complex project is highly dependent on intelligence quotient and emotional quotient and the leader (Muller et al., 2012). Through using the intelligence quotient the project leaders breaks down the whole project into several simpler projects and make this project easier for the project participants. Article 16 Morgan Tuuli, M., Rowlinson, S., Fellows, R., Liu, A. M. M. (2012). Empowering the project team: Impact of leadership style and team context.Team Performance Management: An International Journal,18(3/4), 149-175. Most of the time, the effective leaders use person oriented leadership for completing a complex project. It is positively related to the psychological empowerment of the project participants for their hard work (Morgan et al., 2012). This leadership style concentrates more on valuing the people involved in the project. Article 17 Kaminsky, J. B. (2012). Impact of nontechnical leadership practices on it project success.Journal of Leadership Studies,6(1), 30-49 For the success of an IT project, it is necessary for a project leader to apply adaptive leadership in the project completion. Adaptive leadership helps individual as well as adapt a challenging environment for the success of the project (Kaminsky, 2012). Article 18 Thamhain, H. (2012). The changing role of team leadership in multinational project environments.Revista De Gesto e Projetos,3(2), 4-38 In order to create a high performance project team, the leaders should be very much concerned about the fact that personal and professional needs of the project participants are successfully balanced (Thamhain, 2012). Article 19 Braun, F. C., Avital, M., Martz, B. (2012). Action-centered team leadership influences more than performance.Team Performance Management: An International Journal,18(3/4), 176-195 Action centered project leadership practice helps in creating a project team environment that promote knowledge and learning collaboration along with job satisfaction and individual performance of the project participants (Braun et al., 2012). Article 20 Muganda, N., Pillay, K. (2013). Forms of power, politics and leadership in asynchronous virtual project environment.International Journal of Managing Projects in Business,6(3), 457-484 Effective leadership can minimize conflict among the project participant through maintaining participative leadership in the project execution (Muganda Pillay, 2013). Minimizing conflicts among the project participants would ultimately lead the success of the project. References Berg, M. E., Karlsen, J. T. (2013). Managing stress in projects using coaching leadership tools.Engineering Management Journal,25(4), 52-61. Braun, F. C., Avital, M., Martz, B. (2012). Action-centered team leadership influences more than performance.Team Performance Management: An International Journal,18(3/4), 176-195 Clarke, N. (2012). Shared leadership in projects: A matter of substance over style.Team Performance Management: An International Journal,18(3/4), 196-209. Kaminsky, J. B. (2012). Impact of nontechnical leadership practices on it project success.Journal of Leadership Studies,6(1), 30-49 Kissi, J., Dainty, A., Tuuli, M. (2013). Examining the role of transformational leadership of portfolio managers in project performance.International Journal of Project Management,31(4), 485-497. Krog, C. L., Govender, K. (2015). The relationship between servant leadership and employee empowerment, commitment, trust and innovative behaviour: A project management perspective.SA Journal of Human Resource Management,13(1) Larsson, J.,Eriksson, P.,Olofsson, T., Simonsson, P.(2015). "Leadership in Civil Engineering: Effects of Project Managers Leadership Styles on Project Performance."J. Manage. Eng., 10.1061/(ASCE)ME.1943-5479.0000367, 04015011. Lundy, V., Morin, P. (2013). Project leadership influences resistance to change: The case of the canadian public service.Project Management Journal,44(4), 45-64. Mokhtarisani, M., Zarei, M. M., Leman, Z. (2014). Influence of leadership behavior on project management performance in malaysian industries. Paper presented at the, 564673-677. Morgan Tuuli, M., Rowlinson, S., Fellows, R., Liu, A. M. M. (2012). Empowering the project team: Impact of leadership style and team context.Team Performance Management: An International Journal,18(3/4), 149-175. Muganda, N., Pillay, K. (2013). Forms of power, politics and leadership in asynchronous virtual project environment.International Journal of Managing Projects in Business,6(3), 457-484 Muller, R., Geraldi, J., Turner, J. R., Handelshgskolan vid Ume universitet (USBE), Ume universitet, Samhllsvetenskapliga fakulteten. (2012;2011;). Relationships between leadership and success in different types of project complexities.IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management,59(1), 77-90. Nixon, P., Harrington, M., Parker, D. (2012). Leadership performance is significant to project success or failure: A critical analysis.International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management,61(2), 204-216. Saif Ur Rehman Khan, Long, C. S., Syed Muhammad Javed Iqbal. (2014). Authentic leadership: An emerging issue in project management.Research Journal of Applied Sciences,8(11), 1377-1383. Senam, M. R., Rashid, K. A., Sarkawi, A. A., Zaini, R. M. (2014). Construction project leadership from the perspective of islam.International Journal of Islamic Thought,6, 46-56. Stagnaro, C., Piotrowski, C. (2014). Shared leadership: A critical component in IT project management.Journal of Technology Research,5, 1. Thamhain, H. (2012). The changing role of team leadership in multinational project environments.Revista De Gesto e Projetos,3(2), 4-38 Tyssen, A. K., Wald, A., Spieth, P. (2014). The challenge of transactional and transformational leadership in projects.International Journal of Project Management,32(3) Yang, L., Huang, C., Hsu, T. (2014). Knowledge leadership to improve project and organizational performance.International Journal of Project Management,32(1) Zhang, L., Cheng, J. (2015). Effect of knowledge leadership onKnowledge sharing in engineering project design teams: The role ofSocial capital.Project Management Journal,46(5)

Fe Hedging Gm Essay Example

Fe Hedging Gm Paper Macs hedge foreign exchange rate risk? Multinational firms hedge foreign exchange risk In order to ensure operational and financial functionality. A NC should hedge foreign exchange risk so It can prevent cash flow effects of the foreign firm and the decline in value of the equity holder because of the movements in exchange rates. It will also help them to reduce transaction costs when obligated to make payments in different currencies, and it offers companies better ways to analyze and evaluate different operations by making absurdity comparison easier. Companies can better manage future foreign investments and have better control of capital management needs. Exhibit 2 and Exhibit 3 show the importance of hedging in Gems case. If not, what are the consequences? If so, how should they decide which exposure to hedge? If a NC does not hedge It might end up with its cash flow being volatile, and intense volatility In foreign exchange may distort the cash flow. A companys cash flow from operations can be stable but exchange losses or gains will affect the net Income tenement and the shareholders equity. As foreign currency risks affect companies income statements and balance sheet accounts which is called translation exposure, companies need to focus on the managing of foreign currency risk given their industry related necessities, operations tolerance to volatility, and according to their contractual agreements with clients and creditors. Foreign currency risk might also affect companies existent obligations and agreements denominated in foreign currencies along, eventually affecting firms earnings and cash flow which is called ramifications exposure. We will write a custom essay sample on Fe Hedging Gm specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Fe Hedging Gm specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Fe Hedging Gm specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Besides considering transaction and translation exposure, a company should also consider impacts in prospective revenue and expenses, earnings and cash flow, equity and enterprise value which Is called operating exposure. Thus, companies should decide to hedge their exposure according to the volatility of each exposure category and use either passive or active hedging strategies. What do you think of Gems foreign exchange hedging polices? Would you advise any changes? As it is mentioned in the case itself GM s current foreign exchange policies re in place to meet three major objectives: to reduce cash flow and earnings volatility , to minimize management time and costs associated with FAX management , and to align FAX policy with how Gm operates its core businesses GM currently only chooses to hedge cash flows, or transaction exposures, and does not manage balance sheet, or translational, exposures . Their foreign risk exposure spins mainly around their domestic currency (SUDS) against fluctuations of the Canadian Dollar,Japanese Yen and Argentina Peso. With their passive policy, they edge only 50 of commercial or operating exposures on a regional level. Their hedging policies should consider hedging on a Global Perspective instead of a Regional Basal silence tenet quadrilles operate In multiple territories around t world. And even though each subsidiary might have its own mission statement and objectives, not considering global implications Just because of that matter could translate in substantial risk. Because the company relies much on passive hedging approaches since its abandonment of actively managed risk management decisions. Therefore, I would suggest integration of active strategies considering the expected results and actual outcomes between actively and passively managed strategies. Should GM deviate from its policy in hedging its CAD exposure? Why or Why not? I think they should deviate from its policy in hedging its CAD exposure to account for the balance sheet effect. If GSM deviates from its policy for its Cad exposure, they may increase options in its hedge. It would allow GM to sell buy call/options to counter the effects of the hedge.

And No Matter Where You Run Into It, Prejudice Obscures the Truth Essays

And No Matter Where You Run Into It, Prejudice Obscures the Truth Essays And No Matter Where You Run Into It, Prejudice Obscures the Truth Essay And No Matter Where You Run Into It, Prejudice Obscures the Truth Essay Twelve Angry Men Reginald Rose Pg 53 when juror 8 says â€Å"And no matter where you run into it, prejudice obscures the truth† he means when ever and where ever you are narrow-mindedness and racism can cloud your judgment towards people of all races and cultures, this can be proved by the stubbornness of juror 10 to change his mind about the boys case, and juror 3’s absolute unwillingness to change is mind even when all the other jurors starting with juror 8 note innocent. Juror 10 is one of the most racist and prejudice of the all the jurors a quote to show this is â€Å"Now you’re not going to tell us that we’re supposed to believe that kid, knowing what he is. Listen, I’ve lived among ‘em all my life. You can’t believe a word they say. I mean, they’re born liars. † When he says this he means/believes that people are born in slums are born to live lives of crime and disseat, even thou juror 5 was born and lived in a slum all his life he is a perfectly respectably man. This proves that juror 10 was wrong and people born in slums aren’t born to lie and commit crime. There for prejudice did obscure the truth for juror 10. Juror 3 is the last to change his note because of his grudge against kids this grudge started him and his son had a fight and his son left home ever since juror 3 has had prejudice against kids, when juror 3 says â€Å"That goddamn rotten kid. I know him. What they’re like. What they do to you. How they kill you everyday. My God, don’t you see? How come I’m the only one who sees? Jeez, I can feel that knife going in. this proves that juror 3 thinks he knows every kid in the whole world and knows that they are disrespectful and unthankful. In other words prejudice. When he says â€Å"Jeez, I can feel that knife going in† this shows that he is so shore of the boy committing the crime even thou the boy was found innocent in the end, showing that prejudice did lead juror 3 away from the truth there fo r proving the point that prejudice does obscure the truth. Despite all these facts juror 8 still saw the small chance that the boy could have been innocent a quote to show this is â€Å"But we have a reasonable oubt†¦. No jury can declare a man guilty unless it’s sure. † He’s telling us we have to be sure if we are going to blame someone for anything. This shows us that prejudice isn’t every where in the world and some people do look past race and cultural backgrounds. In conclusion we have to try to look past the color of someone’s skin where they come from are born or have grown up, and look at all the facts to get the absolute truth on the questions that are asked. By Harry Plum

Changes in Homosexual Identity and Christianity Term Paper

Changes in Homosexual Identity and Christianity - Term Paper Example This paper will look at various methods that are related to homosexuality in Christian counseling. The concept will begin with looking at traditional viewpoints and how these have altered in the current time frame, specifically with the integration of psychology and biological factors related to homosexuality. This will be combined with the diversity that is growing in the community which is pushing Christian churches to re-examine their beliefs about homosexuality. There will then be an examination of the main methods that are being used by Christian counselors to assist those who are facing the identity of homosexuality, specifically with perspectives that relate to the responses and assistance which is given. The paper will also examine alternative perspectives that relate to this, specifically which pertain to the environment which one is in, social status of homosexuality in the church and the changes which are being made. An examination of the limitations and potential of Chris tian counseling for homosexuality will also be looked into, specifically to provide a well – rounded perspective about homosexuality and how it currently is linked to growth and development in the church and for Christian counseling. The initial reaction from most Christian branches was based on the rejection of homosexuality. Many believed that the concept of being gay or lesbian was also one which rejected higher spirituality and religion and which didn’t provide integration into the main associations with religion. However, many current changes are beginning to be approached, specifically with the understanding that there are newer problems and types of social groups which are also Christian. Without approaching individuals that are in this specific area, there is the inability to create a difference in one’s life while providing an examination of deeper spirituality. This main problem has led to new ideals in Christianity, specifically by examining the psychological perspective and how it relates to Christianity. It is from this main attribute of combining both experiences that many Christian counselors have been able to find a new perspective to homosexuality and the way in which it should be looked into within society (Stevenson, 2007). The changes with counseling which occurred were not only based on the ideology that spirituality and psychology both related to the other. There were also many who began to discover that there was more to homosexuality than being of a higher or lower s pirituality. There were many churches which began to find that gay and lesbian individuals would regularly come to the church and were not condemned from the practice of spirituality because of the altered lifestyle. Other denominations began to find and discover the biological processes, scientific explanations and other ideologies from the psychology of an individual were associated with the practice of homosexuality. These several new

Media comparative analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Media comparative analysis - Essay Example A media comparative analysis has a vital role in comprehending the various essential elements of the changing nature of the media. Such a media comparative analysis deals with the social aspects, the assumptions and logics, the industrial, the commercial contexts, the primary functions, etc of a particular media form, technology, process, or event in relation to the explicit or implied research methods, the critical framework and assumptions, the theories and logics, the methods and worldviews etc of a specific reading on media and media function. This media comparative analysis paper focuses on a comparative discussion of Megan Boler's "Introduction" to Digital Media and Democracy: Tactic in Hard Times in connection to a particular media form, i.e. an internet radio station. This paper deals with a comparative study of the explicit or implied assumptions about the nature, scope and role of media forms in each of the media discussions, and attempts to bring together the assumptions o f both the media reading and the media form. Megan Boler's main concern in the article is to bring about the connection between media and power and to contribute to the debates about media and democracy within the digital media landscape and the discussions about the internet radio station can help one realize the underlying elements of the media form. As an introduction to the vital assumptions of the discussion, Megan Boler presents his exchange with Tim Russert as illustrative of how the media in the contemporary world functions in terms of truth and power. From the platform of this account, the author goes on to make his significant assumptions about media and power as well as the debates about media and democracy within the digital media landscape. "The story of my exchange with Tim Russert highlights two key challenges about media and power: (1) how to alter the axes of domination so that those with little or no power have a seat at the table, and (2) how to conceive of media (whether dominant, grassroots, or tactical) with the capacity to intervene at the level of public perception, and that can challenge the perverse manipulation of 'facts' about something like global warming." (Boler 2008, 171). According to the author, there is an essential connection between media and power and there is a very scarce chance to gain reali ty through the power of media. Power in media tries to overtake realities about facts and there is fierce competition to accumulate power in media. The author is essentially forceful about the influence of power in media in the contemporary digital era of media where there is fierce competition and the raw material is no longer in short supply. In this background, realizing reality through digital media is much more complex. There have been significant opinions by experts in the field that media is more powerful than any bomb in the contemporary background and this can be realized on the basis of the famous maxim the 'pen is mightier than the sword'. The powerful influence of media over the lives of several modern human beings can be understood in this background. The major focus of the work by Boler is to

Concepts of Brand Identity and Positioning

Concepts of Brand Identity and Positioning A brand is not the name of a product. It is the vision that drives the creation of products and services under that name. That vision, the key belief of the brands and its core values is called identity. It drives vibrant brands able to create advocates, a real cult and loyalty. Modern competition calls for two essential tools of brand management: ‘brand identity, specifying the facets of brands uniqueness and value, and ‘brand positioning, the main difference creating preference in a specific market at a specific time for its products. For existing brands, identity is the source of brand positioning. Brand positioning specifies the angle used by the products of that brand to attack a market in order to grow their market share at the expense of competition. Defining what a brand is made of helps answer many questions that are asked every day, such as: Can the brand sponsor such and such event or sport? Does the advertising campaign suit the brand? Is the opportunity for launching a new product inside the brands boundaries or outside? How can the brand change its communication style, yet remain true to itself? How can decision making in communications be decentralised regionally or internationally, without jeopardising brand congruence? All such decisions pose the problem of brand identity and definition which are essential prerequisites for efficient brand management. Brand identity: a necessary concept Like the ideas of brand vision and purpose, the concept of brand identity is recent. It started in Europe (Kapferer, 1986).The perception of its paramount importance has slowly gained worldwide recognition; in the most widely read American book on brand equity (Aaker, 1991), the word ‘identity is in fact totally absent, as is the concept. Today, most advanced marketing companies have specified the identity of their brand through proprietary models such as ‘brand key (Unilever), ‘footprint (Johnson Johnson), ‘bulls eyes and ‘brand stewardship, which organise in a specific form a list of concepts related to brand identity. However, they are rather checklists. Is identity a sheer linguistic novelty, or is it essential to understanding what brands are? What is identity? To appreciate the meaning of this significant concept in brand management, we shall begin by considering the many ways in which the word is used today. For example, we speak of ‘identity cards a personal, non-transferable document that tells in a few words who we are, what our name is and what distinguishable features we have that can be instantly recognised. We also hear of ‘identity of opinion between several people, meaning that they have an identical point of view. In terms of communication, this second interpretation of the word suggests brand identity is the common element sending a single message amid the wide variety of its products, actions and communications. This is important since the more the brand expands and diversifies, the more customers are inclined to feel that they are, in fact, dealing with several different brands rather than a single one. If products and communication go their separate ways, how can customers possibly perceive these different routes as converging towards a common vision and brand? Speaking of identical points of view also raises the question of permanence and continuity. As civil status and physical appearance change, identity cards get updated, yet the fingerprint of their holders always remains the same. The identity concept questions how time will affect the unique and permanent quality of the sender, the brand or the retailer. In this respect, psychologists speak of the ‘identity crisis which adolescents often go through. When their identity structure is still weak, teenagers tend to move from one role model to another. These constant shifts create a gap and force the basic question: ‘What is the real me? Finally, in studies on social groups or minorities, we often speak of ‘cultural identity. In seeking an identity, they are in fact seeking a pivotal basis on which to hinge not only their inherent difference but also their membership of a specific cultural entity. Brand identity may be a recent notion, but many researchers have already delved into the organisational identity of companies (Schwebig, 1988; Moingeon and Soenen, 2003). There, the simplest verbal expression of identity often consists in saying: ‘Oh, yes, I see, but its not the same in our company! In other words, corporate identity is what helps an organisation, or a part of it, feel that it truly exists and that it is a coherent and unique being, with a history and a place of its own, different from others. From these various meanings, we can infer that having an identity means being your true self, driven by a personal goal that is both different from others and resistant to change. Thus, brand identity will be clearly defined once the following questions are answered: What is the brands particular vision and aim? What makes it different? What need is the brand fulfilling? What is its permanent nature? What are its value or values? What is its field of competence? Of legitimacy? What are the signs which make the brand recognisable? These questions could indeed constitute the brands charter. This type of official document would help better brand management in the medium term, both in terms of form and content, and so better address future communication and extension issues. Communication tools such as the copy strategy are essentially linked to advertising campaigns, and so are only committed to the short term. There must be specific guidelines to ensure that there is indeed only one brand forming a solid and coherent entity. Brand identity and graphic identity charters Many readers will make the point that their firms already make use of graphic identity ‘bibles, either for corporate or specific brand purposes. We do indeed find many graphic identity charters, books of standards and visual identity guides. Urged on by graphic identity agencies, companies have rightly sought to harmonise the messages conveyed by their brands. Such charters therefore define the norms for visual recognition of the brand, ie the brands colours, graphic design and type of print. Although this may be a necessary first step, it isnt the be all and end all. Moreover, it puts the cart before the horse. What really matters is the key message that we want to communicate. Formal aspects, outward appearance and overall looks result from the brands core substance and intrinsic identity. Choosing symbols requires a clear definition of what the brand means. However, while graphic manuals are quite easy to find nowadays, explicit definitions of brand identity per se are still very rare. Yet, the essential questions above (ie the nature of the identity to be conveyed) must be properly answered before we begin discussing and defining what the communication means and what the codes of outward recognition should be. The brands deepest values must be reflected in the external signs of recognition, and these must be apparent at first glance. The family resemblance between the various models of BMW conveys a strong identity, yet it is not the identity. This brands identity and essence can actually be defined by addressing the issue of its difference, its permanence, its value and its personal view on automobiles. Many firms have unnecessarily constrained their brand because they formulated a graphic charter before defining their identity. Not knowing who they really are, they merely perpetuate purely formal codes by, for example, using a certain photographic style that may not be the most suitable. Thus Nina Riccis identity did not necessarily relate to the companys systematic adherence to English photographer David Hamiltons style. Knowing brand identity paradoxically gives extra freedom of expression, since it emphasises the pre-eminence of substance over strictly formal features. Brand identity defines what must stay and what is free to change. Brands are living systems. They must have degrees of freedom to match modern market diversity. Identity: a contemporary concept That a new concept identity has emerged in the field of management, already well versed in brand image and positioning, is really no great surprise. Todays problems are more complex than those of 10 or 20 years ago and so there is now a need for more refined concepts that allow a closer connection with reality. First of all, we cannot overemphasise the fact that we are currently living in a society saturated in communications. Everybody wants to communicate these days. If needed, proof is available: there have been huge increases in advertising budgets, not only in the major media but also in the growing number of professional magazines. It has become very difficult to survive in the hurly-burly thus created, let alone to thrive and successfully convey ones identity. For communication means two things: sending out messages and making sure that they are received. Communicating nowadays is no longer just a technique, it is a feat in itself. The second factor explaining the urgent need to understand brand identity is the pressure constantly put on brands. We have now entered an age of marketing similarities. When a brand innovates, it creates a new standard. The other brands must then catch up if they want to stay in the race, hence the increasing number of ‘me-too products with similar attributes, not to mention the copies produced by distributors. Regulations also cause similarities to spread. Bank operations, for example, have become so much alike that banks are now unable to fully express their individuality and identity. Market research also generates herdism within a given sector. As all companies base themselves on the same life-style studies, the conclusions they reach are bound to be similar as are the products and advertising campaigns they launch, in which sometimes even the same words are used. Finally, technology is responsible for growing similarity. Why do cars increasingly look alike, in spite of their different makes? Because car makers are all equally concerned about fluidity, inner car space constraints, motorisation and economy, and these problems cannot be solved in all that many different ways. Moreover, when the models of four car brands (Audi, Volkswagen, Seat and Skoda) share many identical parts (eg chassis, engine, gearbox), for either productivity or competitiveness purposes, it is mainly brand identity, along with, to a lesser extent, whats left of each car, which will distinguish the makes from one another. Diversification calls for knowing the brands identity. Brands launch new products, penetrate new markets and reach new targets. This may cause both fragmented communications and patchwork images. Though we are still able to discern bits and pieces of the brand here and there, we are certainly unable to perceive its global and coherent identity. Why speak of identity rather than image? What does the notion of identity have to offer that the image of a brand or a company or a retailer doesnt have? After all, firms spend large amounts of money measuring image. Brand image is on the receivers side. Image research focuses on the way in which certain groups perceive a product, a brand, a politician, a company or a country. The image refers to the way in which these groups decode all of the signals emanating from the products, services and communication covered by the brand. Identity is on the senders side. The purpose, in this case, is to specify the brands meaning, aim and self-image. Image is both the result and interpretation thereof. In terms of brand management, identity precedes image. Before projecting an image to the public, we must know exactly what we want to project. Before it is received, we must know what to send and how to send it. As shown in Figure 7.1, an image is a synthesis made by the public of all the various brand messages, eg brand name, visual symbols, products, advertisements, sponsoring, patronage, articles. An image results from decoding a message, extracting meaning, interpreting signs. Where do all these signs come from? There are two possible sources: brand identity of course, but also extraneous factors (‘noise) that speak in the brands name and thus produce meaning, however disconnected they may actually be from it. What are these extraneous factors? First, there are companies that choose to imitate competitors, as they have no clear idea of what their own brand identity is. They focus on their competitors and imitate their marketing communication. Second, there are companies that are obsessed with the willingness to build an appealing image that will be favourably perceived by all. So they focus on meeting every one of the publics expectations. That is how the brand gets caught in the game of always having to please the consumer and ends up surfing on the changing waves of social and cultural fads. Yesterday, brands were into glamour, today, they are into ‘cocooning; so whats next? The brand can appear opportunistic and popularity seeking, and thus devoid of any meaningful substance. It becomes a mere faà §ade, a meaningless cosmetic camouflage. The third source of ‘noise is that of fantasised identity: the brand as one would ideally like to see it, but not as it actually is. As a result, we notice, albeit too late, that the advertisements do not help people remember the brand because they are either too remotely connected to it or so radically disconnected from it that they cause perplexity or rejection. Since brand identity has now been recognised as the prevailing concept, these three potential communication glitches can be prevented. The identity concept thus serves to emphasise the fact that, with time, brands do eventually gain their independence and their own meaning, even though they may start out as mere product names. As living memories of past products and advertisements, brands do not simply fade away: they define their own area of competence, potential and legitimacy. Yet they also know when to stay out of other areas. We cannot expect a brand to be anything other than itself. Obviously, brands should not curl up in a shell and cut themselves off from the public and from market evolutions. However, an obsession with image can lead them to capitalise too much on appearance and not enough on essence. Identity and positioning It is also common to distinguish brands according to their positioning. Positioning a brand means emphasising the distinctive characteristics that make it different from its competitors and appealing to the public. It results from an analytical process based on the four following questions: A brand for what benefit? This refers to the brand promise and consumer benefit aspect: Orangina has real orange pulp, The Body Shop is environment friendly, Twix gets rid of hunger, Volkswagen is reliable. A brand for whom? This refers to the target aspect. For a long time, Schweppes was the drink of the refined, Snapple the soft drink for adults, Tango or Yoohoo the drink for teenagers. Reason? This refers to the elements, factual or subjective, that support the claimed benefit. A brand against whom? In todays competitive context, this question defines the main competitor(s), ie those whose clientele we think we can partly capture. Tuborg and other expensive imported beers thus also compete against whisky, gin and vodka. Positioning is a crucial concept (Figure 7.2). It reminds us that all consumer choices are made on the basis of comparison. Thus, a product will only be considered if it is clearly part of a selection process. Hence the four questions that help position the new product or brand and make its contribution immediately obvious to the customer. Positioning is a two-stage process: First, indicate to what ‘competitive set the brand should be associated and compared. Second, indicate what the brands essential difference and raison dà ªtre is in comparison to the other products and brands of that set. Choosing the competitive set is essential. While this may be quite easy to do for a new toothpaste, it is not so for very original and unique products. The Gaines burger launched by the Gaines company, for instance, was a new dog food, a semi-dehydrated product presented as red ground meat in a round shape like a hamburger. Unlike normal canned pet foods, moreover, it did not need to be refrigerated, nor did it exude that normal open-can smell. Given these characteristics, the product could be positioned in several different ways, for example by: Attacking the canned pet food market by appealing to well-to-do dog owners. The gist of the message would then be ‘the can without the can, in other words, the benefits of meat without its inconveniences (smell, freshness constraints, etc). Attacking the dehydrated pet food segment (dried pellets) by offering a product that would help the owner not to feel guilty for not giving meat to the dog on the basis that it is just not practical. The fresh-ground, round look could justify this positioning. Targeting owners who feed leftovers to their dogs by presenting Gaines as a complete, nutritious supplement (and no longer as a main meal as in the two former strategies). Targeting all dog owners by presenting this product as a nutritious treat, a kind of doggy Mars bar. The choice between these alternative strategies was made by assessing each one against certain measurable criteria (Table 7.1). The firm ended up choosing the first positioning and launched this product as the ‘Gaines burger. What does the identity concept add to that of positioning? Why do we even need another concept? In the first place, because positioning focuses more on the product itself. What then does positioning mean in the case of a multiproduct brand? How can these four questions on positioning be answered if we are not focusing on one particular product category? We know how to position the various Scotchbrite scrubbing pads as well as the Scotch videotapes, but what does the positioning concept mean for the Scotch brand as a whole, not to mention the 3M corporate brand? This is precisely where the concept of brand identity comes in handy. Second, positioning does not reveal all the brands richness of meaning nor reflect all of its potential. The brand is restricted once reduced to four questions. Positioning does not help fully differentiate Coca-Cola from Pepsi-Cola. The four positioning questions thus fail to encapsulate such nuances. They do not allow us to fully explore the identity and singularity of the brand. Worse still, positioning allows communication to be entirely dictated by creative whims and current fads. Positioning does not say a word about communication style, form or spirit. This is a major deficiency since brands have the gift of speech: they state both the objective and subjective qualities of a given product. The speech they deliver in these days of multimedia supremacy is made of words, of course, but even more of pictures, sounds, colours, movement and style. Positioning controls the words only, leaving the rest up to the unpredictable outcome of creative hunches and pretests. Yet brand language should never result from creativity only. It expresses the brands personality and values. Creative hunches are only useful if they are consistent with the brands legitimate territory. Furthermore, though pretest evaluations are needed to verify that the brands message is well received, the public should not be allowed to dictate brand language: its style needs to be found within itself. Brand uniqueness often tends to get eroded by consumer expectations and thus starts regressing to a level at which it risks losing its identity. Table 7.1 How to evaluate and choose a brand positioning Are the products current looks and ingredients compatible with this positioning? How strong is the assumed consumer motivation behind this positioning? (what insight?) What size of market is involved by such a positioning? Is this positioning credible? Does it capitalise on a competitors actual or latent durable weakness? What financial means are required by such a positioning? Is this positioning specific and distinctive? Is this a sustainable positioning which cannot be imitated by competitors? Does this positioning leave any possibility for an alternative solution in case of failure? Does this positioning justify a price premium? Is there a growth potential under this positioning? A brands message is the outward expression of the brands inner substance. Thus we can no longer dissociate brand substance from brand style, ie from its verbal, visual and musical attributes. Brand identity provides the framework for overall brand coherence. It is a concept that serves to offset the limitations of positioning and to monitor the means of expression, the unity and durability of a brand. Why brands need identity and positioning A brands positioning is a key concept in its management. It is based on one fundamental principle: all choices are comparative. Remember that identity expresses the brands tangible and intangible characteristics everything that makes the brand what it is, and without which it would be something different. Identity draws upon the brands roots and heritage everything that gives it its unique authority and legitimacy within a realm of precise values and benefits. Positioning is competitive: when it comes to brands, customers make a choice, but with products, they make a comparison. This raises two questions. First, what do they compare it with? For this, we need to look at the field of competition: what area do we want to be considered as part of? Second, what are we offering the customer as a key decision-making factor? A brand that does not position itself leaves these two questions unanswered. It is a mistake to suppose that customers will find answers themselves: there are too many choices available today for customers to make the effort to work out what makes a particular brand specific. Communicating this information is the responsibility of the brand. Remember, products increase customer choice; brands simplify it. This is why a brand that does not want to stand for something stands for nothing. The aim of positioning is to identify, and take possession of, a strong purchasing rationale that gives us a real or perceived advantage. It implies a desire to take up a long-term position and defend it. Positioning is competition-oriented: it specifies the best way to attack competitors market share. It may change through time: one grows by expanding the field of competition. Identity is more stable and long-lasting, for it is tied to the brand roots and fixed parameters. Thus Cokes positioning was ‘the original as long as it competed against other colas. To grow the business, it now competes against all soft drinks: its positioning is ‘the most refreshing bond between people of the world, whereas its identity remains ‘the symbol of America, the essence of the American way of life. How is positioning achieved? The standard positioning formula is as follows: For †¦ (definition of target market) Brand X is †¦ (definition of frame of reference and subjective category) Which gives the most †¦ (promise or consumer benefit) Because of †¦ (reason to believe). Let us look at these points in detail. The target specifies the nature and psycho-logical or sociological profile of the individuals to be influenced, that is, buyers or potential consumers. The frame of reference is the subjective definition of the category, which will specify the nature of the competition. What other brands or products effectively serve the same purpose? This is a strategic decision: it marks out the ‘field of battle. It must not under any circumstances be confused with the objective description of the product or category. For example, there is no real rum market in the UK, yet Bacardi is very popular. This is because it is perfectly possible to drink Bacardi without realising that it is a rum: it is the party mixer par excellence. Another example illustrates the strategic importance of defining the frame of reference. Objectively speaking, Perrier is fizzy mineral water. Subjectively, however, it is also a drink for adults. Seen in the light of this field of reference, it acquires its strongest competitive advantage: a slight natural quirkiness. As we can see, the choice of the field of competition should be informed by the strategic value of that field: how big, how fast growing, how profitable? But it also lends the brand a competitive advantage through its identity and potential. Perceived as water for the table, Perrier has no significant competitive advantage over other fizzy mineral waters, even though this market is a very large one. However, when viewed in relation to a field of competition defined as ‘drinks for adults, Perrier becomes competitive again: it has strong differentiating advantages. What are its competitors? They include alcoholic drinks, Diet Coke, Schweppes and tomato juice. The third point specifies the aspect of difference which creates the preference and the choice of a decisive competitive advantage: it may be expressed in terms of a promise (for instance, Volvo is the strongest of all cars) or a benefit (such as, Volvo is the ‘safety brand). The fourth point reinforces the promise or benefit, and is known as the ‘reason to believe. For example, in the case of the Dove brand, which promises to be the most moisturising, the reason is that all of its products contain 25 per cent of moisturising cream. Positioning is a necessary concept, first because all choices are comparative, and so it makes sense to start off by stating the area in which we are strongest; and second because in marketing, perception is reality. Positioning is a concept which starts with customers, by putting ourselves in their place: faced with a plethora of brands, are consumers able to identify the strong point of each, the factor that distinguishes it from the rest? This is why, ideally, a customer should be capable of paraphrasing a brands positioning: ‘Only Brand X will do this for me, because it has, or it is †¦ No instrument is entirely neutral. The above formula was created by companies such as Kraft-General Foods, Procter Gamble, and Unilever. It is designed for businesses that base competitive advantage on their products, and works perfectly for the lOrà ©al Group which, with its 2,500 researchers worldwide, only ever launches new products if they are of demonstrably superior performance. This fact is then promoted through advertising. There are cases where the brand makes no promise, or where the benefit it brings could sound trivial. For example, how would you define the positioning of a perfume such as Obsession by Calvin Klein in a way that clearly represented its true nature and originality? It would be wrong to claim that Obsession makes any specific promise to its customers, or that they will obtain any particular benefit from the product apart from feeling good (a property which is common to all perfumes). In reality, Obsessions attractiveness stems from its imagery, the imaginary world of subversive androgyny which it embodies. In the same way, Mugler appeals to young people through its inherently neofuturistic world, and Chanel stands for timeless elegance. What actually sells these perfumes is the satisfaction derived from participating in the symbolic world of the brand. The same is true of alcohol and spirits: Jack Daniels is selling a symbolic participation in an eternal, authentic untamed America. To say that Jack Daniels is selling the satisfaction of being the finest choice would be a mere commonplace, like the tired old clichà © that customers are satisfied at having made a choice that set them apart from the masses (a classic benefit stated by small brands attempting to emphasise their advantage over large ones). Faced with this conceptual dilemma, there are three possible approaches. The first of these is to define positioning as the sum of every point that differentiates the brand. This has been Unilevers approach: the 60page mini-opus known as the Brand Key, which explains how to define a brand across the entire world, starts with the phrase: ‘Brand Key builds on and replaces the brand positioning statement †¦. There are eight headings to Brand Key: 1. The competitive environment. 2. The target. 3. The consumer insight on which the brand is based. 4. The benefits brought by the brand. 5. Brand values and personality. 6. The reasons to believe. 7. The discriminator (single most compelling reason to choose). 8. The brand essence. Fundamentally, therefore, this collection forms the positioning of a brand. However, the concept that most closely resembles positioning in the strict sense of the word is referred to here as the ‘discriminator. McDonalds also adopts a similar reasoning (see Figure 7.3). Larry Light defends the idea that positioning is defined when this chain of means-ends is completed (this is a parallel concept to the ‘ladder moving from the tangible to the intangible): My position is that two tools are needed to manage the brand. One defines the brands identity, while the other is competitive and specifies the competitive proposition made at any given time in any given market. This is the brands unique compelling competitive proposition (UCCP). Thus the tool called ‘brand platform will comprise, first, the ‘brand identity, that is to say, brand uniqueness and singularity throughout the world and whatever the product. Brand identity has six facets, and is therefore larger than the mere positioning. It is represented by the identity prism. At its centre one finds the brand essence, the central value it symbolises. Second, the brand platform comprises ‘brand positioning: choosing a market means choosing a specific angle to attack it. Brand positioning must be based on a customer insight relevant to this market. Brand positioning exploits one of the brand identity facets. Positioning can be summed up in four key questions: for whom, why, when and against whom? It can be represented in the form of a diamond, the ‘positioning diamond (see Figure 7.2, page 176). In positioning, the brand/product makes a proposition, plus (necessarily) a promise. The proposition may additionally be supported by a ‘reason to believe, but this is not essential. Marlboro presents its smoker as a man a real man, symbolised by the untamed cowboy of the Wild West. No support is offered for this proposition; no proof is necessary. It is true because the brand says so. And the more often it is repeated, the more credible it becomes. In this way the brands proposition, which forms the basis of the chosen positioning at a given moment in a particular market, may be fuelled by various ‘edges contained within the brands identity: a differentiating attribute (25 per cent moisturising cream in Dove, the smoothness and bite of Mars bars, the bubbles of Perrier); an objective benefit: an iMac is user friendly, Dell offers unbeatable value for money; a subjective benefit: you feel secure with IBM; an aspect of the brands personality: the mystery of the Bacardi bat, Jack Daniels is macho, Axe/Lynx is cool; Concepts of Brand Identity and Positioning Concepts of Brand Identity and Positioning A brand is not the name of a product. It is the vision that drives the creation of products and services under that name. That vision, the key belief of the brands and its core values is called identity. It drives vibrant brands able to create advocates, a real cult and loyalty. Modern competition calls for two essential tools of brand management: ‘brand identity, specifying the facets of brands uniqueness and value, and ‘brand positioning, the main difference creating preference in a specific market at a specific time for its products. For existing brands, identity is the source of brand positioning. Brand positioning specifies the angle used by the products of that brand to attack a market in order to grow their market share at the expense of competition. Defining what a brand is made of helps answer many questions that are asked every day, such as: Can the brand sponsor such and such event or sport? Does the advertising campaign suit the brand? Is the opportunity for launching a new product inside the brands boundaries or outside? How can the brand change its communication style, yet remain true to itself? How can decision making in communications be decentralised regionally or internationally, without jeopardising brand congruence? All such decisions pose the problem of brand identity and definition which are essential prerequisites for efficient brand management. Brand identity: a necessary concept Like the ideas of brand vision and purpose, the concept of brand identity is recent. It started in Europe (Kapferer, 1986).The perception of its paramount importance has slowly gained worldwide recognition; in the most widely read American book on brand equity (Aaker, 1991), the word ‘identity is in fact totally absent, as is the concept. Today, most advanced marketing companies have specified the identity of their brand through proprietary models such as ‘brand key (Unilever), ‘footprint (Johnson Johnson), ‘bulls eyes and ‘brand stewardship, which organise in a specific form a list of concepts related to brand identity. However, they are rather checklists. Is identity a sheer linguistic novelty, or is it essential to understanding what brands are? What is identity? To appreciate the meaning of this significant concept in brand management, we shall begin by considering the many ways in which the word is used today. For example, we speak of ‘identity cards a personal, non-transferable document that tells in a few words who we are, what our name is and what distinguishable features we have that can be instantly recognised. We also hear of ‘identity of opinion between several people, meaning that they have an identical point of view. In terms of communication, this second interpretation of the word suggests brand identity is the common element sending a single message amid the wide variety of its products, actions and communications. This is important since the more the brand expands and diversifies, the more customers are inclined to feel that they are, in fact, dealing with several different brands rather than a single one. If products and communication go their separate ways, how can customers possibly perceive these different routes as converging towards a common vision and brand? Speaking of identical points of view also raises the question of permanence and continuity. As civil status and physical appearance change, identity cards get updated, yet the fingerprint of their holders always remains the same. The identity concept questions how time will affect the unique and permanent quality of the sender, the brand or the retailer. In this respect, psychologists speak of the ‘identity crisis which adolescents often go through. When their identity structure is still weak, teenagers tend to move from one role model to another. These constant shifts create a gap and force the basic question: ‘What is the real me? Finally, in studies on social groups or minorities, we often speak of ‘cultural identity. In seeking an identity, they are in fact seeking a pivotal basis on which to hinge not only their inherent difference but also their membership of a specific cultural entity. Brand identity may be a recent notion, but many researchers have already delved into the organisational identity of companies (Schwebig, 1988; Moingeon and Soenen, 2003). There, the simplest verbal expression of identity often consists in saying: ‘Oh, yes, I see, but its not the same in our company! In other words, corporate identity is what helps an organisation, or a part of it, feel that it truly exists and that it is a coherent and unique being, with a history and a place of its own, different from others. From these various meanings, we can infer that having an identity means being your true self, driven by a personal goal that is both different from others and resistant to change. Thus, brand identity will be clearly defined once the following questions are answered: What is the brands particular vision and aim? What makes it different? What need is the brand fulfilling? What is its permanent nature? What are its value or values? What is its field of competence? Of legitimacy? What are the signs which make the brand recognisable? These questions could indeed constitute the brands charter. This type of official document would help better brand management in the medium term, both in terms of form and content, and so better address future communication and extension issues. Communication tools such as the copy strategy are essentially linked to advertising campaigns, and so are only committed to the short term. There must be specific guidelines to ensure that there is indeed only one brand forming a solid and coherent entity. Brand identity and graphic identity charters Many readers will make the point that their firms already make use of graphic identity ‘bibles, either for corporate or specific brand purposes. We do indeed find many graphic identity charters, books of standards and visual identity guides. Urged on by graphic identity agencies, companies have rightly sought to harmonise the messages conveyed by their brands. Such charters therefore define the norms for visual recognition of the brand, ie the brands colours, graphic design and type of print. Although this may be a necessary first step, it isnt the be all and end all. Moreover, it puts the cart before the horse. What really matters is the key message that we want to communicate. Formal aspects, outward appearance and overall looks result from the brands core substance and intrinsic identity. Choosing symbols requires a clear definition of what the brand means. However, while graphic manuals are quite easy to find nowadays, explicit definitions of brand identity per se are still very rare. Yet, the essential questions above (ie the nature of the identity to be conveyed) must be properly answered before we begin discussing and defining what the communication means and what the codes of outward recognition should be. The brands deepest values must be reflected in the external signs of recognition, and these must be apparent at first glance. The family resemblance between the various models of BMW conveys a strong identity, yet it is not the identity. This brands identity and essence can actually be defined by addressing the issue of its difference, its permanence, its value and its personal view on automobiles. Many firms have unnecessarily constrained their brand because they formulated a graphic charter before defining their identity. Not knowing who they really are, they merely perpetuate purely formal codes by, for example, using a certain photographic style that may not be the most suitable. Thus Nina Riccis identity did not necessarily relate to the companys systematic adherence to English photographer David Hamiltons style. Knowing brand identity paradoxically gives extra freedom of expression, since it emphasises the pre-eminence of substance over strictly formal features. Brand identity defines what must stay and what is free to change. Brands are living systems. They must have degrees of freedom to match modern market diversity. Identity: a contemporary concept That a new concept identity has emerged in the field of management, already well versed in brand image and positioning, is really no great surprise. Todays problems are more complex than those of 10 or 20 years ago and so there is now a need for more refined concepts that allow a closer connection with reality. First of all, we cannot overemphasise the fact that we are currently living in a society saturated in communications. Everybody wants to communicate these days. If needed, proof is available: there have been huge increases in advertising budgets, not only in the major media but also in the growing number of professional magazines. It has become very difficult to survive in the hurly-burly thus created, let alone to thrive and successfully convey ones identity. For communication means two things: sending out messages and making sure that they are received. Communicating nowadays is no longer just a technique, it is a feat in itself. The second factor explaining the urgent need to understand brand identity is the pressure constantly put on brands. We have now entered an age of marketing similarities. When a brand innovates, it creates a new standard. The other brands must then catch up if they want to stay in the race, hence the increasing number of ‘me-too products with similar attributes, not to mention the copies produced by distributors. Regulations also cause similarities to spread. Bank operations, for example, have become so much alike that banks are now unable to fully express their individuality and identity. Market research also generates herdism within a given sector. As all companies base themselves on the same life-style studies, the conclusions they reach are bound to be similar as are the products and advertising campaigns they launch, in which sometimes even the same words are used. Finally, technology is responsible for growing similarity. Why do cars increasingly look alike, in spite of their different makes? Because car makers are all equally concerned about fluidity, inner car space constraints, motorisation and economy, and these problems cannot be solved in all that many different ways. Moreover, when the models of four car brands (Audi, Volkswagen, Seat and Skoda) share many identical parts (eg chassis, engine, gearbox), for either productivity or competitiveness purposes, it is mainly brand identity, along with, to a lesser extent, whats left of each car, which will distinguish the makes from one another. Diversification calls for knowing the brands identity. Brands launch new products, penetrate new markets and reach new targets. This may cause both fragmented communications and patchwork images. Though we are still able to discern bits and pieces of the brand here and there, we are certainly unable to perceive its global and coherent identity. Why speak of identity rather than image? What does the notion of identity have to offer that the image of a brand or a company or a retailer doesnt have? After all, firms spend large amounts of money measuring image. Brand image is on the receivers side. Image research focuses on the way in which certain groups perceive a product, a brand, a politician, a company or a country. The image refers to the way in which these groups decode all of the signals emanating from the products, services and communication covered by the brand. Identity is on the senders side. The purpose, in this case, is to specify the brands meaning, aim and self-image. Image is both the result and interpretation thereof. In terms of brand management, identity precedes image. Before projecting an image to the public, we must know exactly what we want to project. Before it is received, we must know what to send and how to send it. As shown in Figure 7.1, an image is a synthesis made by the public of all the various brand messages, eg brand name, visual symbols, products, advertisements, sponsoring, patronage, articles. An image results from decoding a message, extracting meaning, interpreting signs. Where do all these signs come from? There are two possible sources: brand identity of course, but also extraneous factors (‘noise) that speak in the brands name and thus produce meaning, however disconnected they may actually be from it. What are these extraneous factors? First, there are companies that choose to imitate competitors, as they have no clear idea of what their own brand identity is. They focus on their competitors and imitate their marketing communication. Second, there are companies that are obsessed with the willingness to build an appealing image that will be favourably perceived by all. So they focus on meeting every one of the publics expectations. That is how the brand gets caught in the game of always having to please the consumer and ends up surfing on the changing waves of social and cultural fads. Yesterday, brands were into glamour, today, they are into ‘cocooning; so whats next? The brand can appear opportunistic and popularity seeking, and thus devoid of any meaningful substance. It becomes a mere faà §ade, a meaningless cosmetic camouflage. The third source of ‘noise is that of fantasised identity: the brand as one would ideally like to see it, but not as it actually is. As a result, we notice, albeit too late, that the advertisements do not help people remember the brand because they are either too remotely connected to it or so radically disconnected from it that they cause perplexity or rejection. Since brand identity has now been recognised as the prevailing concept, these three potential communication glitches can be prevented. The identity concept thus serves to emphasise the fact that, with time, brands do eventually gain their independence and their own meaning, even though they may start out as mere product names. As living memories of past products and advertisements, brands do not simply fade away: they define their own area of competence, potential and legitimacy. Yet they also know when to stay out of other areas. We cannot expect a brand to be anything other than itself. Obviously, brands should not curl up in a shell and cut themselves off from the public and from market evolutions. However, an obsession with image can lead them to capitalise too much on appearance and not enough on essence. Identity and positioning It is also common to distinguish brands according to their positioning. Positioning a brand means emphasising the distinctive characteristics that make it different from its competitors and appealing to the public. It results from an analytical process based on the four following questions: A brand for what benefit? This refers to the brand promise and consumer benefit aspect: Orangina has real orange pulp, The Body Shop is environment friendly, Twix gets rid of hunger, Volkswagen is reliable. A brand for whom? This refers to the target aspect. For a long time, Schweppes was the drink of the refined, Snapple the soft drink for adults, Tango or Yoohoo the drink for teenagers. Reason? This refers to the elements, factual or subjective, that support the claimed benefit. A brand against whom? In todays competitive context, this question defines the main competitor(s), ie those whose clientele we think we can partly capture. Tuborg and other expensive imported beers thus also compete against whisky, gin and vodka. Positioning is a crucial concept (Figure 7.2). It reminds us that all consumer choices are made on the basis of comparison. Thus, a product will only be considered if it is clearly part of a selection process. Hence the four questions that help position the new product or brand and make its contribution immediately obvious to the customer. Positioning is a two-stage process: First, indicate to what ‘competitive set the brand should be associated and compared. Second, indicate what the brands essential difference and raison dà ªtre is in comparison to the other products and brands of that set. Choosing the competitive set is essential. While this may be quite easy to do for a new toothpaste, it is not so for very original and unique products. The Gaines burger launched by the Gaines company, for instance, was a new dog food, a semi-dehydrated product presented as red ground meat in a round shape like a hamburger. Unlike normal canned pet foods, moreover, it did not need to be refrigerated, nor did it exude that normal open-can smell. Given these characteristics, the product could be positioned in several different ways, for example by: Attacking the canned pet food market by appealing to well-to-do dog owners. The gist of the message would then be ‘the can without the can, in other words, the benefits of meat without its inconveniences (smell, freshness constraints, etc). Attacking the dehydrated pet food segment (dried pellets) by offering a product that would help the owner not to feel guilty for not giving meat to the dog on the basis that it is just not practical. The fresh-ground, round look could justify this positioning. Targeting owners who feed leftovers to their dogs by presenting Gaines as a complete, nutritious supplement (and no longer as a main meal as in the two former strategies). Targeting all dog owners by presenting this product as a nutritious treat, a kind of doggy Mars bar. The choice between these alternative strategies was made by assessing each one against certain measurable criteria (Table 7.1). The firm ended up choosing the first positioning and launched this product as the ‘Gaines burger. What does the identity concept add to that of positioning? Why do we even need another concept? In the first place, because positioning focuses more on the product itself. What then does positioning mean in the case of a multiproduct brand? How can these four questions on positioning be answered if we are not focusing on one particular product category? We know how to position the various Scotchbrite scrubbing pads as well as the Scotch videotapes, but what does the positioning concept mean for the Scotch brand as a whole, not to mention the 3M corporate brand? This is precisely where the concept of brand identity comes in handy. Second, positioning does not reveal all the brands richness of meaning nor reflect all of its potential. The brand is restricted once reduced to four questions. Positioning does not help fully differentiate Coca-Cola from Pepsi-Cola. The four positioning questions thus fail to encapsulate such nuances. They do not allow us to fully explore the identity and singularity of the brand. Worse still, positioning allows communication to be entirely dictated by creative whims and current fads. Positioning does not say a word about communication style, form or spirit. This is a major deficiency since brands have the gift of speech: they state both the objective and subjective qualities of a given product. The speech they deliver in these days of multimedia supremacy is made of words, of course, but even more of pictures, sounds, colours, movement and style. Positioning controls the words only, leaving the rest up to the unpredictable outcome of creative hunches and pretests. Yet brand language should never result from creativity only. It expresses the brands personality and values. Creative hunches are only useful if they are consistent with the brands legitimate territory. Furthermore, though pretest evaluations are needed to verify that the brands message is well received, the public should not be allowed to dictate brand language: its style needs to be found within itself. Brand uniqueness often tends to get eroded by consumer expectations and thus starts regressing to a level at which it risks losing its identity. Table 7.1 How to evaluate and choose a brand positioning Are the products current looks and ingredients compatible with this positioning? How strong is the assumed consumer motivation behind this positioning? (what insight?) What size of market is involved by such a positioning? Is this positioning credible? Does it capitalise on a competitors actual or latent durable weakness? What financial means are required by such a positioning? Is this positioning specific and distinctive? Is this a sustainable positioning which cannot be imitated by competitors? Does this positioning leave any possibility for an alternative solution in case of failure? Does this positioning justify a price premium? Is there a growth potential under this positioning? A brands message is the outward expression of the brands inner substance. Thus we can no longer dissociate brand substance from brand style, ie from its verbal, visual and musical attributes. Brand identity provides the framework for overall brand coherence. It is a concept that serves to offset the limitations of positioning and to monitor the means of expression, the unity and durability of a brand. Why brands need identity and positioning A brands positioning is a key concept in its management. It is based on one fundamental principle: all choices are comparative. Remember that identity expresses the brands tangible and intangible characteristics everything that makes the brand what it is, and without which it would be something different. Identity draws upon the brands roots and heritage everything that gives it its unique authority and legitimacy within a realm of precise values and benefits. Positioning is competitive: when it comes to brands, customers make a choice, but with products, they make a comparison. This raises two questions. First, what do they compare it with? For this, we need to look at the field of competition: what area do we want to be considered as part of? Second, what are we offering the customer as a key decision-making factor? A brand that does not position itself leaves these two questions unanswered. It is a mistake to suppose that customers will find answers themselves: there are too many choices available today for customers to make the effort to work out what makes a particular brand specific. Communicating this information is the responsibility of the brand. Remember, products increase customer choice; brands simplify it. This is why a brand that does not want to stand for something stands for nothing. The aim of positioning is to identify, and take possession of, a strong purchasing rationale that gives us a real or perceived advantage. It implies a desire to take up a long-term position and defend it. Positioning is competition-oriented: it specifies the best way to attack competitors market share. It may change through time: one grows by expanding the field of competition. Identity is more stable and long-lasting, for it is tied to the brand roots and fixed parameters. Thus Cokes positioning was ‘the original as long as it competed against other colas. To grow the business, it now competes against all soft drinks: its positioning is ‘the most refreshing bond between people of the world, whereas its identity remains ‘the symbol of America, the essence of the American way of life. How is positioning achieved? The standard positioning formula is as follows: For †¦ (definition of target market) Brand X is †¦ (definition of frame of reference and subjective category) Which gives the most †¦ (promise or consumer benefit) Because of †¦ (reason to believe). Let us look at these points in detail. The target specifies the nature and psycho-logical or sociological profile of the individuals to be influenced, that is, buyers or potential consumers. The frame of reference is the subjective definition of the category, which will specify the nature of the competition. What other brands or products effectively serve the same purpose? This is a strategic decision: it marks out the ‘field of battle. It must not under any circumstances be confused with the objective description of the product or category. For example, there is no real rum market in the UK, yet Bacardi is very popular. This is because it is perfectly possible to drink Bacardi without realising that it is a rum: it is the party mixer par excellence. Another example illustrates the strategic importance of defining the frame of reference. Objectively speaking, Perrier is fizzy mineral water. Subjectively, however, it is also a drink for adults. Seen in the light of this field of reference, it acquires its strongest competitive advantage: a slight natural quirkiness. As we can see, the choice of the field of competition should be informed by the strategic value of that field: how big, how fast growing, how profitable? But it also lends the brand a competitive advantage through its identity and potential. Perceived as water for the table, Perrier has no significant competitive advantage over other fizzy mineral waters, even though this market is a very large one. However, when viewed in relation to a field of competition defined as ‘drinks for adults, Perrier becomes competitive again: it has strong differentiating advantages. What are its competitors? They include alcoholic drinks, Diet Coke, Schweppes and tomato juice. The third point specifies the aspect of difference which creates the preference and the choice of a decisive competitive advantage: it may be expressed in terms of a promise (for instance, Volvo is the strongest of all cars) or a benefit (such as, Volvo is the ‘safety brand). The fourth point reinforces the promise or benefit, and is known as the ‘reason to believe. For example, in the case of the Dove brand, which promises to be the most moisturising, the reason is that all of its products contain 25 per cent of moisturising cream. Positioning is a necessary concept, first because all choices are comparative, and so it makes sense to start off by stating the area in which we are strongest; and second because in marketing, perception is reality. Positioning is a concept which starts with customers, by putting ourselves in their place: faced with a plethora of brands, are consumers able to identify the strong point of each, the factor that distinguishes it from the rest? This is why, ideally, a customer should be capable of paraphrasing a brands positioning: ‘Only Brand X will do this for me, because it has, or it is †¦ No instrument is entirely neutral. The above formula was created by companies such as Kraft-General Foods, Procter Gamble, and Unilever. It is designed for businesses that base competitive advantage on their products, and works perfectly for the lOrà ©al Group which, with its 2,500 researchers worldwide, only ever launches new products if they are of demonstrably superior performance. This fact is then promoted through advertising. There are cases where the brand makes no promise, or where the benefit it brings could sound trivial. For example, how would you define the positioning of a perfume such as Obsession by Calvin Klein in a way that clearly represented its true nature and originality? It would be wrong to claim that Obsession makes any specific promise to its customers, or that they will obtain any particular benefit from the product apart from feeling good (a property which is common to all perfumes). In reality, Obsessions attractiveness stems from its imagery, the imaginary world of subversive androgyny which it embodies. In the same way, Mugler appeals to young people through its inherently neofuturistic world, and Chanel stands for timeless elegance. What actually sells these perfumes is the satisfaction derived from participating in the symbolic world of the brand. The same is true of alcohol and spirits: Jack Daniels is selling a symbolic participation in an eternal, authentic untamed America. To say that Jack Daniels is selling the satisfaction of being the finest choice would be a mere commonplace, like the tired old clichà © that customers are satisfied at having made a choice that set them apart from the masses (a classic benefit stated by small brands attempting to emphasise their advantage over large ones). Faced with this conceptual dilemma, there are three possible approaches. The first of these is to define positioning as the sum of every point that differentiates the brand. This has been Unilevers approach: the 60page mini-opus known as the Brand Key, which explains how to define a brand across the entire world, starts with the phrase: ‘Brand Key builds on and replaces the brand positioning statement †¦. There are eight headings to Brand Key: 1. The competitive environment. 2. The target. 3. The consumer insight on which the brand is based. 4. The benefits brought by the brand. 5. Brand values and personality. 6. The reasons to believe. 7. The discriminator (single most compelling reason to choose). 8. The brand essence. Fundamentally, therefore, this collection forms the positioning of a brand. However, the concept that most closely resembles positioning in the strict sense of the word is referred to here as the ‘discriminator. McDonalds also adopts a similar reasoning (see Figure 7.3). Larry Light defends the idea that positioning is defined when this chain of means-ends is completed (this is a parallel concept to the ‘ladder moving from the tangible to the intangible): My position is that two tools are needed to manage the brand. One defines the brands identity, while the other is competitive and specifies the competitive proposition made at any given time in any given market. This is the brands unique compelling competitive proposition (UCCP). Thus the tool called ‘brand platform will comprise, first, the ‘brand identity, that is to say, brand uniqueness and singularity throughout the world and whatever the product. Brand identity has six facets, and is therefore larger than the mere positioning. It is represented by the identity prism. At its centre one finds the brand essence, the central value it symbolises. Second, the brand platform comprises ‘brand positioning: choosing a market means choosing a specific angle to attack it. Brand positioning must be based on a customer insight relevant to this market. Brand positioning exploits one of the brand identity facets. Positioning can be summed up in four key questions: for whom, why, when and against whom? It can be represented in the form of a diamond, the ‘positioning diamond (see Figure 7.2, page 176). In positioning, the brand/product makes a proposition, plus (necessarily) a promise. The proposition may additionally be supported by a ‘reason to believe, but this is not essential. Marlboro presents its smoker as a man a real man, symbolised by the untamed cowboy of the Wild West. No support is offered for this proposition; no proof is necessary. It is true because the brand says so. And the more often it is repeated, the more credible it becomes. In this way the brands proposition, which forms the basis of the chosen positioning at a given moment in a particular market, may be fuelled by various ‘edges contained within the brands identity: a differentiating attribute (25 per cent moisturising cream in Dove, the smoothness and bite of Mars bars, the bubbles of Perrier); an objective benefit: an iMac is user friendly, Dell offers unbeatable value for money; a subjective benefit: you feel secure with IBM; an aspect of the brands personality: the mystery of the Bacardi bat, Jack Daniels is macho, Axe/Lynx is cool;